The concept of yajňa has been clarified in the separate essay.

Ashva or Horse: “It is an image of the great dynamic force of Life, of the vital and nervous energy. It is a force -- a figure of Prāņa, the universal Life-energy. Originally it must have implied strength or speed or both, before it came to be applied to a horse. In the first or root significance, it means, “to exist pervadingly'' and so, “to possess'', “have'', “obtain'' or “energy''. Besides this original sense inherent in the roots of this family, it has its own peculiar significance, existence in force, --of strength, solidity, sharpness, speed, --  in ashma, stone, ashani, a thunderbolt, ashri, a sharp edge or corner and finally ashva, the strong, swift horse.'' (SA)

The symbolism of the horse is quite evident in the hymns of Dīrghatamas to the Horse of the Sacrifice, RV (1.162) and RV (1.163), the hymns of the various ŗşhīs to the Horse Dadhikrāvan and opening of the Bŗhadāraņyaka Upanishad in which uşhā vā ashvasya medhyasya shiraĥ, (“Dawn is the head of the sacrificial horse'') is the first phrase of a very elaborate figure. (SA)

Consider the Taittirīya Samhitā of the Krişhņa Yajur Veda which is viewed as describing the outward rites by almost all traditionalists. Its last anuvāka of the last Kāņda (7.5.25) begins with the sentence, “he who knows the summit of the intelligence (medhya) of the horse (ashva) becomes illumined and fit for the sacrifice''.

“yo va ashvasya medhyasya shiro veda shīrşhņavān medhyo bhavatu''.

The rest of this anuvāka TS (7.5.25) till the end is mostly identical to the Br.U. (1.1.1) and  (1.1.2) quoted earlier and develops the cosmic form of the horse. The end of TS (7.5.25) is same as that Br.U. (1.1.2), ending with the phrase “samudra evāsya bhandhuĥ samudro yoniĥ''.  (The sea (samudra) was his brother and sea his birthplace (yoni).)

Ashvamedha: The Horse-sacrifice is the offering of the Life-power with all its impulses, desires, enjoyments to the divine existence. The life-soul (Dwita) (RV 5.18.2) is itself the giver of the sacrifice. Dwita is the god or ŗşhi of the second plane of human ascent.

Trita is the God or ŗşhi of the third plane, full of luminous mental kingdoms unknown to the physical mind.

There are two different types of Ashvamedhas; one is a complete inner yajňa involving the prāņa-shakti and does not involve any horse; the second is an elaborate rite in which the animal steed plays a key role. In the second, it is assumed that the horse is slaughtered; this seems to be the practice in relatively later times such as that of the Rāmāyaņa. I guess in the early days, even though the horse was used, it was  set free afterwards and not immolated. The custom is similar to the one which exists even today in some villages where a bull is worshipped but it is set free afterwards. It is never yoked again.

Inner Yajňa:

Recall that all the horse-sacrifice mantrās in the Rig Veda are in RV (1.162) (22 mantrās) and RV (1.163) (13 mantrās). In the external rite one more mantra from the TS is used namely (5.7.24) which is similar to the last passage of (7.5.25) which is again identical to the beginning passage of Bŗhadāraņyaka U. Thus we are dealing with 36 mantrās. Also note that both RV (1.162) and RV (1.163) are revealed to the ŗşhi Dīrghatamas, all of whose sūktās RV (1.140) through RV (1.164) are full of deep symbolism. Also recall the mantrās, ‘yajamāna is yajňa', ‘yajňa is Vişhņu' occurring in many mantrās in the TS. We can easily understand the deeper meanings of these 36 mantrās by paying careful attention to every word in them and by not being carried away by the meanings assigned by commentators and translators. Ashva the steed is the standard symbol for Life-energy or Life-power prāņa both inside the human and in the cosmos. medha means both ‘offering' and ‘intelligence'. Ashvamedha means offering of the life-power with all its impulses, desires, enjoyments, frustrations and also its material counterpart.

There are naturally three questions: To whom is it offered? Who offers it? What is the goal or purpose in the offering?

We will begin with the third question. The life-power or prāņashakti is continuously varying in us; when we are enthusiastic it is more; when the prāņashakti is low, the immunity to diseases is affected and we get diseases formally ascribed to external agents like bacteria. Bacteria are there all the time, but they can easily enter the body when the immunity is low. In the realm of Haţha Yoga and Prāņāyāma, there are several methods for recharging the prāņa. What is given in the Veda is the basic method of rejuvenating the life-force and the associated physical body.

As an answer to the first question, the Life-force in its imperfect condition is offered to the divine existence in general and the Gods Indra, Pūşhaņ and Tvaşhţŗ. Pūşhaņ is the nourisher who nourishes all the aspects of prāņa. Tvaşhţŗ, the divine architect, perfects the forms which have deteriorated. Indra, the lord of Divine Mind, leads the prāņa. Indra gives the intelligence for the prāņa to prosecute its activities. Using the power of discrimination svadhiti, the different aspects of life-force which need rejuvenation are pointed out. There is no physical cutting of the body, only the recognition of the different aspects needing healing.

Finally we answer the second question ‘who offers'. A key idea in the Veda is that behind the changing life-force there is the fixed and eternal life-soul, the soul of the life energies, Dwita, mentioned in Rig Veda. It presides over the progress of the life-power. The life-soul, also called as aja, the unborn, leads the life-power as mentioned in many mantrās.

Once the life-soul offers the life power to the deities, the life-force becomes perfected and it returns to the human being. There is no question of killing or dismemberment.

TS (4.6.8.2) (same as RV (1.162.2)) gives the secret of the Ashvamedha. The actual words in the mantra are in parenthesis.

“The life force with universal form (vishvarūpa) and golden lustre (rekņasa) on being purified and completely covered by the physical body is held and lead (nayanti) in front by the unborn life-soul (aja) with easy gait (suprāng) and with the appropriate mantra-sound''.

TS (4.6.8.3) (or RV (1.162.3)) (second half): Tvaşhţŗ (the divine architect) accepts the life-force (arvata) with love and makes it full of delight (abhijinvati) and ready for the happy revelations (saushra vasāya).

Both these verses indicate that the physical steed of Ashvamedha symbolises the life-force only. There is no killing of steed.

The description of Ashva-Dadhikrāvaņ in TS (1.5.11.11,12) (same as RV (4.39.6, 10)) (p. 299, volume 1) is also relevant.

The outer rite:

In popular imagination, Ashvamedha is identified with the ritual slaughtering of the horse. The Brāhmaņa part of the Taittirīya Samhitā, Taittirīya Brāhmaņa, Vājasaneya Samhitā and Shatapatha Brāhmaņa offer many details on the ritual of Ashvamedha involving the killing. We give here an excerpt from the book by R. Panikkar.

“It is royal sacrifice offered by a victorious king. It is the most solemn and impressive cultic celebration of the Vedas and at the same time it is one of the most secular and political. The priestly role is not here so prominent as in most of the other sacrifices. Though its actual duration is only three days, preparations for the rite take long months or even, according to the prescriptions, up to one year or sometimes two, with yet another year to conclude the ritual''.

“At the moment of sacrifice the royal court, including the queen who has an important role to play at a certain moment, is assembled together with the entire population. At the start Soma juice is offered and then, after many ritual acts, the horse is immolated with solemnity. Numerous other animals are also led to the appointed spot and certain ones are offered in sacrifice. After the sacrifice of the horse has been performed the prescribed procedure demands the sacrifice of a number of cows, followed by the distribution of honoraria and other gifts to the priests.

Today we are perhaps in a better position to understand the nature of this sacrifice, which has been the subject of much debate among scholars. Without taking part in the discussion we may see in this sacrifice the final, minutely detailed elaboration of a long process in which pre-Vedic elements, fertility rites, cosmogonic references, social motives, political factors, and priestly interests all play a part, together producing a highly elaborate and no doubt impressive ritual. In spite of its complicated, soon outmoded and at times degraded ritual, the overall impression created by this rite, encompassing as it does the whole of the universe, is undeniably splendid. It is often called the Great Sacrifice, mahākratu, the great display of force and power. It blots out all sins, fulfils all wishes, answers prayers for a son, and also, at a deeper level, fulfils or perfects Prajāpati and identifies with him the one who is offering the sacrifice.'' [R. Panikkar, “The Vedic experience'']

The steed as a symbol of the nation

Taittirīya Brāhmaņa, which is really a continuation of Taittirīya Samhitā, mentions this aspect. The beginning of 8th Prapāţhaka, TB (3.8.9) states, “The aim of the yajňa is integration. All the peoples are unified''. (sāmgrahanyeşhtya yajate imām janatām samgŗhņānīti).

TB (3.8.9.6) states: “Ashvamedha is the nation. Those who work for the extension of the nation, they protect the Ashvamedha...” . (rāşhţram vā ashvamedhaĥ rāşhţre khalu vā ete vyāyachchhnate ye ashvam medhyam rakşhantī...).

The epic Rāmāyaņa in the chapter (1.24.33) mentions the Ashvamedha and the role of queen Kausalya in it. A vulgar interpretation is given without understanding the symbolism. The horse symbolises the nation and the seed of the emperor or the successor. Kausalya's participation is a prayer for the seed of the nation to manifest symbolically in her.

Understanding the deeper meaning of the mantrās:

We accept that RV mantrās were recited during immolation. The primary question is whether the mantrās themselves support unambiguously the ritual killing? To answer this question, we have to pay attention to every word of the 35 mantrās in the two sūktās and their meanings.

The commentator S and translator Keith assign meanings to the words so as to emphasize the idea of ritual killing. We should ascertain the basis for the assigned meanings. I will give here only 4 examples; there are many more.

īkşhamaņa RV (1.162.13), TS (4.6.9.2): ikşha is connected with sight. But S renders it as a wooden rod to check whether the meat has been cooked.

sunāĥ (RV 1.162.13): It occurs in numerous mantrās with the meaning of sons or successors. Here S translates it as a knife for cutting meat.

aja: Appears in RV (1.162.2), TS (4.6.8.2), RV (1.163.12), TS (4.6.7.12): It has the natural meaning of ‘unborn' or the life-soul which leads the life-force to the higher worlds. S renders it as the goat which is slaughtered first before the killing of horse. It does not make much sense to read S stating, “the (dead) goat leads the (slaughtered) horse to heaven''.

shamita: Occurring in (RV 1.162.9) and  shamitāra in RV (1.162.10) are rendered as ‘slaughter'. ’shamita' in RV (10.110.10) is rendered as God or fire by S. ’shamita' is translated by SA as the achiever of works. This meaning is used by S in RV (3.4.10) as, ‘one who polishes or improves'. ’shamita' can also mean ‘to calm' or ‘to quicken'; to translate this word as ‘slaughtering' is really far-fetched.

See also the comparison of the translations of TS (4.6.9.2).

Some mantrās in the two suktās can be understood as referring to the animal horse. For example (1.162.7) may refer to the fatigue of the horse and the pain caused by the heel or whip. However there is no support in RV mantrās for killing of the horse. The horse was set free after the worship.

The idea of letting an animal go free after worship has been mentioned in Brāhmaņa passage TS (5.1.8) as ’paryāgnikŗta'.

We reproduce below the translation of the famous Ashvastomīya hymn RV (1.163) which is reproduced completely in TS (4.6.7). The hymn has 13 mantrās. Not even one of the mantrās seems to refer to the four-legged animal. But all of them refer to the life-energy, the prāņa imaged in various ways.

TS (4.6.7): Ashvastomīya mantrās

Born with wings of eagle: RV (1.163.1)

(O Horse), when on being born you first arose from the Sun or from the waters;

With the wings of an eagle and limbs of swift gazelle;

O Arvat, your superb birth is worthy of praise.

Yama gave it: RV (1.163.2)

God Yama (he who controls) gave (men) this Horse, and Trita harnessed it, Indra was the first to mount him;

The Gandharvās grasped its reins;

Vasus fashioned the steed from the Sun (or light of the Sun).

You are Yama: RV (1.163.3)

O Arvan, you are Yama, you are Āditya;

You are Trita in the secret law of your action, by only a little are you distinguished from Soma;

They say that three are your connections to the heaven.

Supreme Birth: RV (1.163.4)

Your bonds in the heaven is three;

Three in the Waters, three in the Oceans;

O Steed, Varuņa has told me the place of your Supreme birth.

Bridles of Truth: RV (1.163.5)

O Swift one, these are your haunts for bathing;

Here are the foundation for your conquering hooves;

Here are seen the auspicious bridles of Right action (ŗta);

That protect the rider and the knowledge.

Perceive the soul (the bird): RV (1.163.6)

I perceive with my mind your innermost soul and it protects;

(Your soul) is like a bird from the heaven swooping down;

O bird, I saw your head speeding with wings on dust-free paths, fair and easy to travel, going higher and higher.

Highest form: RV (1.163.7)

Here I see your highest form, move towards the plane of impulsion of Rays;

When a mortal man pleases your taste;

Then most greedily do you consume the growths of earth.

Law of action: RV (1.163.8)

O steed, the chariot and the army follow you;

The Rays follow you, and the happy delight of the maidens follow you;

They who follow your law of action become friendly to you;

The Gods have measured their power following you.

Inferior Indra: RV (1.163.9)

With his Golden horns, feet of steel, with the speed of mind, he was an inferior Indra.

For the enjoyment of offerings came the Gods;

Who first did master the steed.

Hamsa (swan): RV (1.163.10)

With their backs full of impulsion and their middle part well-knit;

The heroic and divine gallopers, speed in companies like  swans;

And are eager (to reach) the divine goal.

Body & mind: RV (1.163.11)

O Steed, your body swoops downwards,  your thought is like the tempestuous wind;

Your horns are placed in many places, move quickly in the woods (amidst foes).

Discernment: RV (1.163.12)

The place of discernment has neared and is in your mind;

(You are) meditating with the mind and wishing to the reach the Gods.

Its source  is the unborn (the life-soul) which leads in front the life-force;

After whom the seers and those that chant walk.

Highest abode: RV (1.163.13)

To his highest abode has the steed come, to his father and his mother;

To-day do you go to the Gods with Supreme joy;

For the giver, disperse all desirable qualities.

Anuvākās: According to the ritualists the anuvākās dealing with Ashvamedha in TS are: (4.6.6) through (4.6.9), (5.2.11-12), (5.5.11) through (5.5.24), (5.6.11) through (5.6.23), (5.7.11) through (5.7.26), (7.1.11) through (7.1.20), (7.2.11) through (7.2.20) and (7.3.11) through (7.3.20), (7.4.12) through (7.4.22) and finally (7.5.11) through (7.5.25). The connection of many of these anuvākās with Ashvamedha is tenuous. Several anuvākās give lists of animals and they are assumed by ritualists to be meant for slaughtering. The text does not say so anywhere.

For an excellent overview of the rite, its logic and its relation to the Sun, the King and Kingdom, see the book “Ashvamedha: The Rite and the Logic'' by Subhash Kak, (MLBD), 2002, pp. 71.

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